Abstract.
The three wheeled, two stroke petrol engined Autorickshaw is the dominant form of public transport in most Indian cities. It has also been identified as a primary cause of gaseous emissions resulting in significant air pollution and the premature death of many.

This paper will trace the development of the battery powered Autorickshaw with special emphasis on the larger 8-10 passenger "Tempo" style of vehicle from the early trials in Kathmandu to the establishment in 1999 of new designs and full scale production.

In addition to discussing the technical features of the vehicles, the paper will detail their operational characteristics such as range and detail the infrastructure requirements i.e. battery charging and changing facilities. Most importantly the overall economics of the use of the Electric Autorickshaw will be discussed.

While Governmental support for these projects has been available in both India and Nepal, the paper will look forward to the hurdles still to be crossed and how technology and financial support will both play a part in the future development of Electric Autorickshaws.

While the pure battery car may never meet the needs of the American and European motorist, the Electric Autorickshaw represents a real EV alternative today on the highly congested and polluted streets of India and South East Asia.

Introduction

Air pollution is today one of the greatest threats to both the health and future prosperity of India. There were an estimated 2.5 million premature deaths caused by air pollution in India in 1997 and according to a recent World Bank study, poor urban air quality is costing India billions of dollars in increased health care and lost productivity.

At a time when India is trying hard to increase tourism, the streets of Delhi and even "the Garden City" of Bangalore, can only be walked with a handkerchief held up to your streaming eyes and sore throat.

Much of the blame for this situation must be levelled at the every increasing volume of road traffic. A high proportion of these vehicles use two stroke engines where as much as 40% of the fuel is lost as hydrocarbon emissions. Based on figures produced by USAID these vehicles account for 70% of the air pollution in the inner city areas of the major cities of India.

PRODUCTION OF VEHICLES IN INDIA - TWO & THREE WHEELERS

Most of the city streets in India today are highly congested. Average speeds are seldom more than 25 km/h and daily distances rarely exceed 100 km. A typical journey will include multiple stops and starts.

One key mode of transport in many Indian cities is the Autorickshaw. Developed to meet the unique combination of congestion and the demand for low cost, flexible public transport, the "Auto" as it is generally known has developed in two specific versions. This is a three-wheeled petrol or diesel engine vehicle. The smaller and more common model is used as a free roving taxi carrying three passengers and, while restricted from some parts of cities, can basically travel anywhere. The larger vehicle, often known as a Tempo, carries up to 8 passengers and runs a fixed route typically carrying passengers from the outer suburbs into and out from the city centre. These vehicles are known to be amongst the worst polluters and have been targeted by cities such as Delhi and Lucknow to be phased out and banned.

In Nepal it has been seen that passengers prefer to travel in the Safa Tempos, often letting a standard vehicle pass and waiting for the EV. They claim the major benefits are a smoother and quieter ride without the hazard of the exhaust fumes penetrating into the largely open passenger compartment of the vehicle. In Kathmandu they will also pay a 25% premium for the Safa Tempo.

Based largely on the experience gained in Nepal, at least three significant projects have begun in India with two major manufacturers at the stage of pilot production. Key features of the Indian vehicles are as follows:

1 ) Vehicles have been designed specifically for Indian city use as point to point taxis carrying 8 - 10 passengers at a top speed of 40 km/h..
2 ) Vehicles have been designed for minimum cost so that they can be offered ( less battery ) at only a small premium over equivalent engine powered vehicles.
3 ) The current lead acid batteries are designed to give 80 km range and to be easily removed and changed. Up to three batteries are to be provided with each vehicle to give a 240 km daily range. As new battery technology is developed, such as nickel metal hydride, so the need to change batteries will diminish.
4 ) The latest vehicles feature Curtis SepEx or separately excited DC motor speed controllers. These provide active regenerative braking, electronic control of forward and reverse direction, programmable top speed control and reduced maintenance.

Critical to the success of these new projects will be the establishment of a battery charging and vehicle maintenance station infrastructure. To succeed this will require the ongoing support of both National and local governments.

The future.

The Kathmandu experience has taught us that without proper maintenance, battery life and vehicle reliability will suffer. This is why Curtis Instruments has sponsored training programmes in Nepal and elsewhere. With the larger Tempo style of vehicle, which runs along a fixed route, it is possible to set up a battery charging station where batteries are changed, recharged and vehicles are maintained. The ownership of the station and, if necessary the batteries themselves, can be held separately from the vehicles. Charging stations can be positioned to service more than one route, making an appropriate monetary charge for each battery recharge. In this way the higher initial cost of the EV Tempo can be off set by the lower running costs from lower fuel and maintenance costs. The charging stations will also support other EVs such as scooters and door to door delivery vehicles.

Income for the Tempo vehicle operator is based on 1 Rupee per passenger kilometre and equates to between 1000 to 1500 Rs per day. The typical cost of the EV Tempo is 150,000 Rs plus 120,000 Rs for three battery packs. An autorickshaw driver earns approximately 100 Rs per 8 hour shift. Given these economics it is possible to show a payback for the vehicle operator of 2 to 3 years and to the charging station owner operator of 3 to 4 years.

Given the commercial risks involved it may well be that the local and national governments will have to look favourably upon these investments in order to accelerate their application to the obvious benefit of the environment. Areas to consider are:
1 ) Provision of low or even zero cost sites close to city centres for the provision of charging stations.
2 ) Beneficial tax breaks for investors in EV Tempo projects.
3 ) Zero duty to be paid on key imports in support of EV programmes ( in Nepal 1% duty is applied) to reduce the initial capital cost of the vehicle.
4 ) Higher tax / duty on hydrocarbon based fuels used for transportation.
5 ) Consideration of banning engine powered vehicles in sensitive and critical areas such as close to the Taj Mahal in Agra., or creating 'zero emission vehicles only' zones in crowded areas in cities.
6 ) Provide increased levels of subsidy for EV demonstration programmes.
7 ) To encourage overseas governmental and non-governmental bodies to participate in EV. programmes and the establishment of the necessary infrastructure to support them. 8) Introducing time-of-use rates for electricity thus encouraging the future EV customers to charge the EV s in off peak hours at a considerable discount in tariff.

Often western technologies are not directly applicable to Indian conditions because of differences in climate, infrastructural support, cultural habits etc. Before introducing new technologies in batteries or motor-controllers such as NiMH batteries or AC Motor controllers , their techo-commercial acceptance in Indian market conditions will have be studied from this angle.

Conclusion

While it is true to say the IC Engined vehicles make up the majority of vehicles in the world today, there are a number of niche applications where battery powered vehicles dominate. This occurs only when there is an economic, operational and environmental benefit. Current examples include Golf Carts, Materials Handling Equipment in warehouses and airports, door to door delivery vehicles in city centres i.e. Milk Floats.

The unique combination in India today of congested streets with slow moving traffic, imported fuel and desperate air pollution is an ever deteriorating spiral. Urgent measures are necessary to reverse the situation and one answer may be the introduction of low cost, indigenous, battery electric autorickshaws. There are today very distinct operational and environmental benefits and the economics can be improved by the positive intervention of government together with the establishment of a critical market size, which will enable manufacturers to reduce costs.